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Centralized royal power contributed
to the strengthening of cities and towns, and the development of
trade and crafts brought about a considerable increase in the urban
population. Towns in their turn, were interested in doing away with
feudal isolation and came out in support of the unification of the
country. Tbilisi and Kutaisi held a leading position in the economy
of Georgia during this period. Other towns also prospered. The
beginning of the 11th century marked an up-growth of
cities and towns, Crafts became detached from agriculture, their
wares being in high demand among the population. Manufacture of
earthenware (ketsi) and tinware, perfumes, blacksmithing, carpentry,
baking of bread, bookbinding, and copying, developed rapidly.
The widespread development of
numerous crafts in Georgia in the period under discussion is shown
in historical sources, and also in remaining works of art. In the 11th
and 12th centuries, Georgia was again noted for its rich
gold, silver and copperware. Vessels were also made of crystal, cut
glass and ordinary glass. Georgian knitting and needlework were
well-known from past times. Craftsmen of the period did not
constitute a definite class; some were serfs and others free men.
Trade developed hand in hand with
crafts. A large part of the wealth created commodities in the form
of handicrafts, building materials, ingots of silver and gold, and
ornaments made of these metals and precious stones. According to
Acad. I. Javakhishvili, “there was no article that could not be
bought in the market or in the countryside”. Georgia’s situation on
a trade route linking the West with the East, known in Classical
time, contributed to the development of foreign trade.
This route facilitated expansion of
commercial ties with other countries. Georgia’s broad trade links
with other countries in the 11th and 12th
centuries are recorded in literature, and in numismatic and
archaeological material as well. The Crown gave full support to the
development of trade. Good trade routes facilitated communication
with the outer world. Caravans brought textiles, perfumes,
harnesses, sugar, and other goods to Georgia from Muslim countries
and from Byzantium. In the 12th century, wool was
imported from Egypt.
Tbilisi was the hub of Georgia’s
domestic and foreign trade. Other towns were also active in
commercial transactions. As urban citizens and merchants formed an
important social stratum The king and the Church had their own
serf-merchants who traded within the country and paid their masters
a tribute in money and kind.
In Tbilisi, rich merchants formed a
privileged circle of the population. Possessing wealth, they
exercised considerable influence all over the country, The crown
duly appreciated the importance of big merchants for the country,
surrounding them with special care. They established close relations
with the feudal aristocracy, some of them joining the ranks of the
aristocracy, through the purchase of estates. The merchants had
their own guild headed by an elder whose duties included management
of commercial affairs as well as according a fitting reception to
foreign merchants. The guild controlled caravan trade. The
activities of merchants were given support and encouragement, It is
noteworthy that, along with business, big merchants also maintained
economic and, at times, even diplomatic contacts with other
countries. The promotion of the merchant class into social life is
demonstrated by the fact that a wealthy merchant, Zankan Zorababel,
took part in the organization of Queen Tamar’s marriage, and it was
he who fetched Prince Yuri Bogolyubsky to Georgia.
In the 11th and 12th
centuries, Georgia had a regulated monetary system. The state minted
money, determined the metal to be used and the monetary unit, set
the scale of prices, and established rules of issue and withdrawal
of money from circulation. In the early 12th century, the
country experienced an economic boom facilitated by a financial
reform carried out by David the Builder. Legal tender during that
period was gold, silver and copper currency, the first two being
used in international trade and the later being used at home.
Georgia’s agriculture in that period
was being upgraded, agricultural implements being gradually
perfected. Of great importance was the widespread use of the plough.
The so-called large Plough was popular mostly in the lowlands of
Kakheti, whose natural conditions allowed its wide use. In this
everyday work, the peasant used tools which had stood the test of
time: spade, shovel, hoe, sickle, and ax and pruning knife.
As in ancient times, Georgia’s
economy in the 11th and 12th centuries made
use of various type of transport matched to the natural conditions
of each particular area. Georgian ethnographic material allows us to
trace various vehicles whose design was determined by local
environmental conditions. In mountain areas of Georgia, sledges and
sleds were used, while in the plain, a two-wheeled cart was common.
In the transition areas, a combination of vehicles was used.
In the same period, water mills
acquired particular importance in agricultural technology. Major
irrigation canals and aqueducts were constructed through an effort
ot the government in the Tiriponi Valley, in the environs of Ruisi,
Urbnisi, Samgori, and in Kakheti. Besides these structures,
pipelines and aqueducts in Vardzia, Dmanisi, Geguti and Tbilisi also
demonstrate the complexity of technology in the water supply systems
used in the 11th and 12th centuries.
The growing of cereals and
leguminous plants, as well as wine-makin, was especially developed
in Georgian agriculture. According to Acad. I. Javakhishvili, 420
varieties of grapes were grown in Georgia. Also widespread were such
industrial crops as flax and hemp. Flax had been cultivated here
from ancient times and, together with was and honey which was
abundantly produced by well-developed apiculture was featured
prominently in domestic and foreign trade. Animal husbandry was also
well-developed to provide draft animals and to supply meat and diary
products, leather, and wool. Poultry farming also played a
significant role, and sericulture was of greate importance since
silk was an item of export.
This period witnessed a high level
of development in feudal Georgian culture in such areas as
philosophy, historiography, philology, letters, architecture,
monumental painting, miniatures, metalwork and pottery. Shota
Rustaveli’s great epic poem “The Knight in the Panther’s Skin” was
created at the turn of the 13th century. Scholarly and
literary work flourished at centers of culture existing within
Georgia and abroad. The highly developed culture of 12th
century Georgia had been prepared by the religious development of
the period before. The Iviron monastery on Mt. Athos, the Georgian
monastery on the Black Mountain, the monastery of the Holy Cross in
Palestine, and the Petritsoni monastery in Bulgaria were Georgian
centers where intensive scholarly and cultural work thrived.
The culture of the country was
determined by the development of education, which progressed
considerably during this period. Schools were mainly attached to
churches and monasteries. In fact, the system of education in
Georgia was fully subordinated to Christian ideology. As an
illustration of this partnership, alongside schools of rhetoric
there were primary schools in various towns. It is not fortuitous
that buildings for schools (seminaries) are found near the
monasteries of Opiza, Oshki, Shatberdi, Berta and Khandzta.
The larger churches were designed
not only for cultic and monastic activities, but served also as
centers of school education. Schools under the auspices of churches
and monasteries were official; the subjects taught there were
theology, hymnography, liturgics and Georgian manuscript writing. At
the same time, in the families of members of the royal court and
feudal lords, children were educated by private tutors.
Close acquaintance with the
Byzantine system of education played a significant role in the
progress of education in 11th and 12th century
Georgia. Many Georgians received education in Byzantium, some of
whom subsequently became outstanding scholars, most notably Eprem
Mtsire. Giorgi Mtatsmindeli sent eighty Georgian youngsters to
Byzantium to receive education and be instructed in the rules of
divine service at the Iviron monastery.
King David the Builder gave close
attention to the education of his people. This fact was not
overlooked by the Armenian chronicler Vardan Bardzmerts, who wrote
that “David took great care of the Iberian people, who sought
knowledge”. The king selected forty children who were sent to Greece
“so that they be tought languages and bring home translations made
by them there”. Three of t hem later became well-known scholars.
At the time of David the builder,
there were quite a few schools and academies in Georgia, among which
Gelati Academy occupies a special place. King David’s historian
calls Gelati “a second Jerusalem of all the East for learning of all
that is of value, for the teaching of knowledge- a second Athens,
far exceeding the first in divine law, a canon for all
ecclesiastical splendor”.
Gelaty Academy was the first school
of its kind to be established in the period of developed feudalism,
It answered the actual needs of the day, anticipating the
ideological movement that paved the way for the Georgian
Renaissance.
Besides Gelati, there also were
other centers of cultural enlightenment and scholarly pursuit in
Georgia at that time. There was a higher school at Iqalto, the
Iqalto Academy. Its existence is commemorated by the ruins preserved
in the yard of the monastery. The two probably formed a single
founder and firs rector of the academy was Arsen Iqaltoeli, who came
to Iqalto from Gelati in the 1120s. Historians also mention the
existence of an academy at Gremi.
Intensive literary, philosophical,
and translation work was carried on that Georgian centers of culture
and education outside Georgia: the Iviron Monastery on Mt. Athos,
the monastery on the Black Mountain in Syria, and the Petritsoni
monastery in Bulgaria. In this period, a number of original works
were written and important monuments of world culture were
translated into Georgian, facilitating the advance of national
scholarship and literature. Of the Georgian scholars who flourished
outside Georgia, Giorgi Mtsasmindeli, Eprem Mtsire and Giorgi
Khutsesmonazoni (Mtsire) became renowned.
Georgian architecture witnessed
particular growth in the 11th and 12th
centuries. Large and important churches were build, clearly
demonstrating new stylistic features, The Bagrat Church in Kutaisi,
Svetitskhoveli in Mtskheta, Alaverdi Cathedral in Kaketi, and
Samtavisi Church in Kartli are all 11th century
monuments. In the 12th century, the church at the
monastery of Gelati, the domed church at Tighva, the churches of
Ikorta, Betania and Kvatakhevi were constructed.
Of civic buildings erected in the 11th
century, Geguti Palace deserves special mention, though part of the
palace is dated in to an earlier period. It was designated to serve
as a retreat and hunting lodge. What remains of the palace points to
its grand scale, allowing conjecture that the royal residences in
the capital cities of Tbilisi and Kutaisi must have been even more
impressive. Ruins of urban houses have been discovered at the sites
of Dmanisi, Samshvilde and the Gudarekhi monastic ensemble. With
regard to style, urban buildings were close to their church
counterparts, the difference between them being merely functional.
Among civic buildings, Gelati Academy, built in 12th
century as a monastic ensemble, is outstanding. The one-stored
building is actually a large auditorium with two entrances.
The rock-cut monastic complexes of
David Gareja and Vardzia occupy an important place in the history of
Georgian architecture. The Gareja monastic complex was founded by
David of Gareja. It continued to exist and grow in the Middle Ages,
and consisted of several monasteries: David’s Iaura, Bertubani,
Udabno, Natslismtsemeli, and Chichkhituri. Numerouse cells are cut
in the rock, as well as a refectory, a church and a chapel, Many of
these were adorned with murals.
The architectural ensemble of
Vardzia was begun by Giorgi III and completed in the reign of his
daughter, Queen Tamar. Vardzia is comprised of several hundred
cells. During incursions, Vardzia served as a stronghold. An
important feature of this complex is a large church painted with
frescoes, among which are the portraits of Giorgi III and Tamar. In
the mountains not far from Vardzia there is the Vaghani or Vani cave
which also was constructed for monastic use. Other similar rock-cut
complexes have survived at Samsari and in Javakheti.
Important monuments of 11th
and 12th century engineering are the
Shio-Mkgvime-Skhaltba irrigation canal built in the reign of Queen
Tamar, as well as bridges spanning the Besleti River near Sukhumi
and the Dondali in Achara. This period also was the development of
fortresses, built on sheer cliffs to protect roads, gorges and towns
Fortresses built in those days had no loopholes, which was natural
since they were built before the advent of firearms. It is
noteworthy that the fortresses blended so harmoniously with the
rocks on which they stood that they gave the impression of a single
structure. The fortresses of Southern Georgia, Khertvisi, Astskuri,
Okrostsikhe, and Tmogvi are monumental and majestic.
The 11th and 12th
centuries witnessed a flowering of fine arts. In the first half of
the 11th century, a marked tendency to sculptural décor
was noticeable, becoming less pronounced in the subsequent period
when relieves on the facades of churches become rare. In goldsmith’s
work, especially in the 12th century, decorativeness
became prominent. A good example of this trend is the Kakhuli icon
of the Virgin and Child from Gelati, a unique work of goldsmith’s
art dated in the first half of the 12th century.
The goldsmiths Beshken and Beka
Opizari flourished in the reign of Queen Tamar. The chased setting
of the Tsqarostavi Gospel with the scenes of the Crucifixion and
Gethsemane, as well as the repouss work in Anchiskhati church were
done by Beka Opizari. The work in Anchiskhati included figures of
the Virgin, Kohn the Baptist and other saints with an ornamental
design around the edges. Beshken Opizari executed the book-cover of
the Berta Gospel.
Several styles are observable in the
goldsmith’s work of the period. There were schools at Opiza, Tbeti
and Gelati, each having its won, individual style. Works of Georgian
goldsmiths were in no way inferior to those of Buzantine masters and
many of them occupy a prominent place in world art.
The art of illumination of
manuscripts and miniature painting was also developed in 11th
and 12th century Georgia. Rare examples of medieval
illuminated manuscript books have come down to us. Georgian books of
that time are characterized by beautiful calligraphy, a variety of
ornamental designs and refined miniatures. The art of enameling
objects of gold, silver and copper was known in Georgia from ancient
times. Georgian cloisonné enamels enjoy special renown. In the 12th
century, this art was on a par with architecture and the art of
fresco painting. A vivid example of this is the Khahuli icon; only
the face, hands and part of the halo have survived Georgian enamels
are characterized by special flesh or translucent green hues and the
depth of their color.
Applied arts were also
well-developed in the 11th and 12th centuries.
The highly artistic pottery an copper ware show the penetration of
art into everyday life. The production of gold-brocaded fabrics (oksino)
occupied a significant place in textile production.
Philosophy had also made a
remarkable progress, greatly furthered by the development of secular
culture and its Weltanschauung. New concepts of man and the purpose
his existence evolved in Georgian philosophy. Special attention was
paid to humanism, which found its poetic and philosophical
expression in Shota Rustaveli’s poem “The Knight in the Panther’s
Skin”. The influence of humanistic ideas, prevalent in Georgian
society of the time and reflected in literature and art, gives
scholars ground to speak of clear signs of the Renaissance in
Georgia.
Thus, in 11th and 12th
century Georgia, its society, art and culture were at the same high
level as its policy and economy.
Georgia’s political unification had
its opponents as well: part of the nobility and the reactionary wing
of the Church, supported by foreign conquerors of Byzantium and the
Seljuk Turks. The nobility and the clergy feared the loss or
limitation of their privileges, while the foreign conquerors were
apprehensive of the unification.
The differences between the royal
power and the nobility were felt as early as in the reign of Bagrat
III (975-1014). On his way back from Western Georgia to Kartli, the
future king routed the nobility that had rebelled against him under
the leadership of Kavtar Tbeli, established himself at Uplistsikhe
and began to rule. His reign was challenged by Rati I Baghvash,
eristavi of Kldekari, Thanks to Bagrat’s domestic and foreign
policy, the territory of the Georgian kingdom expanded.
Meanwhile, the influence of
Byzantium gradually dwindled. Relations with the Empire became
aggravated under Giorgi I (1014-1027). and Bagrat IV (1027-1072).
Byzantium tried in every way possible to preserve its earlier
influence over Transcaucasia and win the Georgian nobles that were
disloyal to their sovereign. In the 1060s and 1070s, the situation
in Georgia became serious due to the activities of the Seljuk Turks,
whose invasions caused Georgia great damage. Especially destructive
were the so-called “great Turkish conquests”, starting in the 1080s.
Being nomads, the Seljuk Turks turned the lands they captured into
pastures; this deprived the feudal economy of its basis,
jeopardizing the very existence of Georgia. Despite their strong
drive, however, the Seljuks failed to deprive Georgia of its
independence. The Georgian people suffered severe losses but managed
to maintain their state organization. The result was that Giorgi II
(1072-1089) was forced to pay an annual tribute to the Turkish
Sultan.
In the 11th century,
Georgia possessed sufficient forces to repel the Seljuk hordes, but
that called for the rallying of the Georgians. The country needed a
clever and charismatic leader to organize the struggle against the
enemy. At the advice of progressive statesmen, the still-young King
Giorgi II abdicated in 1089 in favor of his 16-year-old, David
(David IV the Builder). David’s was a heavy legacy: a country
devastated by the Seljuks; a hungry population that had fled to the
mountains; and ravaged towns, villages and fortresses. Decisive
measures were imperative to resuscitate the country.
At the end of the 11th
century, the king and his advisers made a comprehensive analysis of
the situation in Georgia and took into account the factors that
impeded the unification of the country. First, it was necessary to
strengthen the realm and rally its disunited subjects around their
monarchy. David the Builder began by gathering all those who were
loyal to him, so they could pursue this cause together. Personally
leading his loyal detachments, the King attacked the Seljuks, and
routing them, allowed the peasants who had fled to the mountains to
return to their land. King David gradually expelled the Seljuk Turks
from Kartli. His successful campaigns inspired the Georgian people
and gave them confidence in their own strength and hope for a final
victory over the enemy. The country returned to intensive
agriculture, and cities and towns rose again.
David the Builder spared no effort
to strengthen the country, and his constructive activity was crowned
with success: Georgia gained strength. The king increased his
troops, drove the remaining Seljuks out of Georgia and stopped
paying them the tribute.
In 1104, David the Builder
incorporated Hereti and Kakheti into the now united Georgia.
The Seljuk Turks did not relish
losing a tributary, therefore the Atabeg of Ganja, a man close to
the Sultan, hurriedly sent an army to Georgia in order to eject King
David from Hereti ad Kartli. The fully armed king met the enemy. The
battle took place near Ertushki, where the Georgians were victorious
and King David displayed great courage. The Georgian Crown set
itself the task of recovering the cities of Tbilisi, Rustavi and
Samshvilde, which had been captured by the Seljuks.
However, first it was necessary to
solve the problem of the Georgian Church. The issue was that the
Church was in opposition to the Crown, ad it was of paramount
importance to take decisive measures in the religious sphere. The
Georgian Church was a major feudal organization in the middle Ages.
It had a period of particular ascendancy in the 11th
century, when, by coming into possession of vast land holdings, it
acquired immunity and turned into a powerful state within a state.
Beginning with the 10th century, high church offices
began to fall into the hands of unworthy men. This is also
documented by the historian of David the Builder. The Church
supported independently-minded feudal lords in their craving to be
kings in their domains. In order to strengthen central power the
Georgian royal court challenged the reactionary church aristocracy.
The first step in this direction was the Ruisi-Ubnisi Church
Council., where the stand of King David and his supporters prevailed
and decisions were reached which radically changed the activities of
the Church.
Henceforward, big feudal lords began
to lose their ecclesiastic allies. King David’s reform was supported
by broad sections of the population and the administration in
Georgia became strong and centralized.
In the first quarter of the 12th
century, an important merger occurred between the office of
Chqondideli (“Archbishop of Chqondidi”) and that of
Mtsignobratukhutsesi (literally: “chief of the scribes”), chief
adviser to the King on all problems of state. This dealt a blow to
the upper hierarchy of the Church, leaving it with no other choice
but to bow to the Crown. The creation of this office provided
favorable conditions for fighting both external and internal
enemies.
The historical development of the
state organization of feudal Georgia and the institution of
Chqondideli-Mtsignobartukhutsesi were organically interlinked.
Hence, “Monasteries and bishoprics and every church will receive
rules and canons for conducting the devine service and all church
regulations from the darbazis-kari as indisputable law-most
beautiful, reasonable and respectable in divine service and fasting”
(Kartlis Tskhovreba”).
The final liberation of Georgia from
the Seljuk Turks called for the expulsion of the latter from their
footholds in the Transcaucasus, from Shirvan and Ran in the east and
from Armenia in the South.
King David the Builder carried out
an extraordinary military reform, introducing strict discipline
which strengthened a sense of unfailing duty. Special attention was
devoted to the good training of the troops and introducing definite
changes in the existing regulations. To ensure quick movement, King
David increased the number of troops and cavalry detachments and
changed the strategy and tactics of warfare. The King especially
favored the stratagem of luring the enemy into an ambush and
affecting a surprise attack.
Part of the Georgian army still
depended upon big feudal lords, their will and wishes, and their
relations with the king. At the same time, incessant wars kept the
most productive part of the population away from home and farming.
The country’s power depended not only on the organization of the
army, but on economic regeneration as well. Thus, the need arose for
creating an army of non-local population. The Crown settled some
40,000 families of the Polovsty in Georgian territory. These
families became integrated into local feudal relations and each
family gave one warrior, creating an army of 40, 000 men. In this
way, King David sought to limit maximally the political rights of
the feudal lords and to strengthen the royal authority. The
settlement of the Polovsty in Georgia in 1118-1120, and the creation
of a standing army recruited from their sons, made the king
practically independent of Georgian feudal lords and strengthened
the country as a whole.
The Kingdom of Georgia made
intensive preparations for a decisive battle aimed at liberating
Tbilisi. The battle was fought on August 12, 1121, near Didgori, and
the Georgians won a rilliant victory. In 1122, Tbilisi was
incorporated info Georgia, and it again became the capital of
Georgia, replacing the former capital at Kutaisi.
The struggle of the Georgian people
against the Turks was of great importance for Shirvan. The joint
struggle of the Georgians and Shirvans ensured Shirvan’s
independence of the Seljuks. In 1124, King David annexed Shirvan to
Georgia.
The king and his army participated
in the struggle for the liberation of the Armenian people. In 1123,
he took a number of Armenian fortresses. Representatives of Anis
appealed to the king to take the town into his possession. In 1124,
King David, at the head of 60, 000 men, captured Anis. During the
reign of David’s successor, Demetre I (1125-1156), the Seljuk Turks
made several attempts to recover Anis. The Georgians had to make
concessions and sign a treaty with the Turks, according to which
Anis was ceded to the Moslem ruler on terms vassalage.
In 1138, the Georgians took Gandza
(Ganja) and, to commemorate the victory, brought the fortress gate
to Georgia. Under King Giorgi III (1156-1184), the struggle against
the Seljuks gained momentum. In 1161, Giorgi III took Anis, joining
it to his kingdom, and in 1162, e captured Dvin. In 1167, in
response to an appeal from Aghsartan the Shirvan-shah, a vassal of
Georgia, King Giorgi’s troops undertook a military expedition to
Shirvan and, as a result, Sharuban and Daruband were recovered.
In 1177, the nobles, headed by Ioane
Orbeli and Prince Demna (Demetre), rose against King Giorgi III. The
king quelled the rebellion and, in 1178, ceded the throne to his
only daughter and heiress, Tamar. However, Giorgi remained coregnant
until his daughter and heiress, Tamar. However, Giorgi remained
coregnant until his death in 1184. In the same year, in compliance
with the demand of the high nobles, Tamar was enthroned for a second
time. This ceremony was arranged in such a way as to emphasize the
role of noble houses in installing an heir to the throne with royal
power.
Thus emboldened, the nobility began
to “revise” the policy of the royal court. Vizirs originating from
among the commoners, the amirspasalar Quabasar and the
msakhurtukutsesi (master of the royal household) Apridon, were
removed from office. At that time, a group of opponents, headed by
the mechurchletukhutsesi (minister of finance) Qutlu-Arslan,
raised their voice, demanding that along with the king’s darbazi
(a council of representatives of the higher secular and religious
aristocracy) a karavi (parliament) also be instituted, and
that this karavi be vested with executive power. This demand was not
satisfied, but the queen was obliged to reckon with the upper
strata, granting them greater rights.
Then, the problem of an heir to the
throne and the marriage of the Queen arose. At the decision of the
darbazi, Queen Tamar married Prince Yuri Bogolyubsky, son of
the Grand Duke of Suzdal, Andrei Bogolyubsky, in 1185. The Prince
consort Yuri became involved in the enter-class struggle that had
developed in the Georgian royal court. Two and a half years later,
Queen Tamar dissolved her marriage to Prince Yuri and, in 1189,
married David Soslan. But, in 1191, a group of courtiers,
disgruntled with the queen’s policy, called Prince Yuri back from
Constantinople where he had been staying, and stirred up a
large-scale rebellion involving the feudal lords of almost all of
Western Georgia. Queen Tamar suppressed the rebellion and Prince
Yuri was again expelled from the country.
At the end of the 12th
century, major successes in Georgia’s foreign policy took place.
Thanks to a strong military organization, the Georgians undertook a
massive offensive against the Turkish invaders. In 1195, the Turks
wew crushed in the battle at Shamkor and, in 1203, at Vaziani. The
Georgian army marched to the southern coast of the Black Sea and won
back the lands populated with Georgians of the Laz and Chan tribes.
The Georgians captured Trebizond, Samsun, Sinope, Cerasus, Kotyora
and Heraclea, and Queen Tamar formed the Kingdom of Trebizond,
incorporating all the territories.
In the first decade of the 13th
century, the Sultan of Erzink and Emir of Arzrum became Queen
Tamar’s vassals. In 1208-1209, Tamar subjugated Archesh and, in
1210, the Georgian army took the towns of Marand., Tabriz, Miyaneh,
Zenjan and Kazvin, laying them under tribute. Transcaucasian
mountaineers placed themselves under Queen Tamar unconditionally and
swore allegiance to her. Queen Tamar’s policy was continued by her
son and heir, Giorgi IV Lasha (1213-1223). By the 1220s, Georgia was
a politically and economically powerful feudal monarchy.
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